Chapter 23 Responses

Chapter 23 Responses

2) What factors contributed to economic globalization in the second half of the twentieth century?

After World War II, the capitalist victors, particularly the United States, were determined to avoid any return to Depression-era conditions.  Because of this, they set up the International Monetary Fund, the World Bank, and other agreements of institutions which laid the foundation for postwar globalization.  This system negotiated the rules for commercial and financial dealings among the major capitalist countries in addition to promoting relatively free trade and high levels of capital investment.  In addition, new technologies dramatically lowered transportation costs, while fiber-optic cables and the Internet provided the communication infrastructure for global economic interaction.  Meanwhile, in the developing countries, population growth further fueled globalization as dozens of new nations entered the world economy.

3) In what ways has economic globalization more closely linked the world’s peoples?

World trade skyrocketed from a value of 57 billion in 1947 to 18.3 trillion in 2012.  Money achieved an amazing global mobility in three ways.  First was foreign direct investment, in which a firm opens up a factory in another country.  This practice practically exploded in the 1960s as companies in rich countries sought to take advantage of cheap labor, tax breaks, and looser environmental regulations in developing countries.  A second form of money in motion has been the short-term movement in capital, in which investors annually spend trillions of dollars purchasing foreign currencies or stocks likely increasing in value and often sold them quickly thereafter.  A third form of money movement involved the personal funds of individuals, with international credit cards taking hold almost everywhere.  Central to the acceleration of economic globalization have been transnational corporations, producing and delivering goods or services in many countries simultaneously.

5) What new or sharper divisions has economic globalization generated?

Although the economic growth was the most remarkable spurt in world history, and the overall life expectancy increased everywhere, accompanied by decreasing infant mortality and poverty rates and increasing literacy, a somewhat troubling trend has emerged in the instability of this emerging world economy and the distribution of the wealth it has generated.  While the economy has grown overall, recent world history has been shaped by periodic crises and setbacks.  Because most of the world is deeply interconnected, economic woes can be far-reaching in the consequences.  In addition, the ratio of income between the income of the top and bottom 20 percent of the world's population has increased dramatically, from 3:1 in 1820 to 68:1 in 1991.  Such gaps have led to great disparities in income, medical care, availability of clean drinking water, educational and employment opportunities, access to the Internet, and many other things.

Pandemic Essay

Pandemics and History

                While history is often shaped by the people living in the world at any given time, sometimes disease has also played a crucial role in shaping cultures and societies affected by such outbreaks, as their effects have often been dramatic when they become an epidemic or even a pandemic.  For example, the Black Death, or bubonic plague, had catastrophic effects on Europe and Asia once it spread throughout the area, killing an estimated 75 to 200 million people during the 14^th Century.  As a result of this colossal death toll, the European social structures at the time were completely upended, leading to massive changes both in European societies and its position in global affairs.  While subsequent pandemics have proven to be nowhere near as deadly in terms of the human toll, they have still proven to be a semi-regular occurrence in history.  In that context, the current COVID-19 pandemic, which the World Health Organization declared as such on March 11, is not particularly exceptional, since there have been other widespread disease outbreaks in history.  However, this current outbreak may be somewhat different with regards to the steps taken to address the pandemic, especially the near-total shutdown of ordinary life as a result of policies aimed at containing the spread of the virus.  This current pandemic way well be the worst since the 1918 Spanish flu outbreak in terms of its scale, though obviously these involve two different diseases.  Time will tell what long-term impacts the current COVID-19 pandemic will have on the world as a whole, but even at this stage it seems as though it will be a long time before life returns to normal.

                To understand the context in which the coronavirus pandemic is occurring, we must first understand what a pandemic is.  While the terms epidemic and pandemic have specific meanings, they are sometimes mistakenly used in an interchangeable way.  This is perhaps understandable, as both words contain -demic and are used to describe diseases. (Osborne) However, the key difference is in the scale of the outbreak.  An epidemic disease is one affecting many people at the same time and spreading from person to person in an area where the disease is not permanently prevalent.  As further defined by the World Health Organization, epidemic refers to an outbreak occurring at the community or regional level.  In comparison, a pandemic disease is an epidemic which has spread over a large area.  In other words, it’s prevalent throughout an entire country, continent, or even the whole world.  Pandemics are not limited by the length of time over which a disease spreads.  For example, the ongoing spread of HIV/AIDS since the 1980s is considered a pandemic even though it has been going on for so long. (LePan)  Because of the definition of the term pandemic, it could rightfully be used to describe the massive spread of diseases to the Native Americans upon coming into contact with Europeans for the first time, since these diseases spread very quickly across entire populations, obviously in large part due to their lack of any previous exposure to such diseases.  (Strayer, 557-558) Similar outbreaks occurred in Australia as a result of Europeans coming into contact with the Aboriginal peoples there, though the death rate wasn’t quite as severe there or in the Maori population of New Zealand.  Overall, though, such pandemics occurred often when two groups of people interacted for the first time.  Nowadays, however, since our world is much more interconnected, modern pandemics are far more likely to come about due to poor sanitation or travel, which is what makes outbreaks potentially more widespread than in the past, as well as making them rather difficult to contain.

                As I’m living through the current coronavirus pandemic, it feels like a rather bizarre situation, especially with all major public gatherings being called off and/or banned in order to try and contain the spread of the virus.  Although I completely understand the reasoning for this, and support these efforts as necessary for the health of the public as a whole, it’s definitely a weird experience to be living through it, particularly in how I’m not allowed to physically go to classes yet still take part in them online.  In addition, the complete social isolation that’s resulting from these measures is something I’ve never experienced before in my life, even when there have been previous pandemics that I was alive to know about.

Sources Cited:

LePan, Nicholas. “Visualizing the History of Pandemics.” Visual Capitalist, 13 Apr. 2020, www.visualcapitalist.com/history-of-pandemics-deadliest/.

Osborne, Joe. “‘Epidemic’ vs. ‘Pandemic’: What Do These Terms Mean?” Dictionary.com, Dictionary.com, 4 Mar. 2020, www.dictionary.com/e/epidemic-vs-pandemic/.

Strayer, Robert W. Ways of the World: a Brief Global History with Sources; Volume 2: since the Fifteenth Century. Bedford/St. Martins, 2019.

Chapter 22 Responses

Chapter 22 Responses:

2) What was distinctive about the end of Europe’s African and Asian empires compared to other cases of imperial disintegration?

Like the ends of the Austrian and Ottoman Empires following World War I, which gave rise to numerous new states in Europe and the Middle East, and the ends of the German and Japanese empires after World War II, the African and Asian movements for independence featured the ideal of national self-determination.  However, the new independence movements not only asserted political independence but also affirmed the vitality of their cultures, which had been submerged and denigrated during the colonial era.  Although these new nations claimed an international status equal to that of their former rulers, like their earlier counterparts, they stood in contrast with the earlier independence movements in the cultural factor.  In the Americas, many of the colonized people were themselves of European origin, and subsequently shared much of their culture with their colonial rulers.

3) What international circumstances and social changes contributed to the end of colonial empires?

On one hand, Western ideals sat awkwardly at odds with the reality of colonialism, especially the ideal of national self-determination being at odds with the possession of colonies denied any opportunity to express their own national character.  On the other hand, the world wars had weakened Europe, while discrediting any sense of European moral superiority, and the United States and the Soviet Union became the new global superpowers.  Meanwhile, the United Nations provided a prestigious platform with which to conduct anticolonial agitation.  In addition, within the colonial world, a second or third generation of Western-educated elites were deeply aware of the gap between European values and its practices and no longer viewed colonial rule as a vehicle for their people's progress, as a result increasingly insisting on immediate independence.

16) How and why did thinking about strategies for economic development change over time?

At first, in newly independent nations, most people expected that the state authorities would spur the economic development of the countries, since the private economy was weakly developed and few entrepreneurs had substantial funds to invest.  State control also held the promise of protecting vulnerable economies from the worst parts of capitalism.  Over time, however, the favor switched to the market to generate economic development.  In part this was due to the failure, corruption, and mismanagement of many state-run enterprises, but this was also influenced by the collapse of the world's first state-dominated economy in the Soviet Union.  In addition, Western pressured pushed developing countries in a capitalist direction.

Flu of 1918

Perhaps the deadliest pandemic in modern times was the Spanish flu from 1918 to 1920.  It infected an estimated 500 million people worldwide, one third of the world's population at the time.  Between 20 million and 50 million people were killed by the particular strain of flu worldwide, including some 675,000 Americans.  However, this epidemic occurred in two distinct stages.  In the first stage, in the spring of 1918, the sick, largely experiencing typical flu symptoms, mostly recovered within a few days, and the number of reported deaths was relatively low.  In the fall of 1918, however, the flu returned with much more serious and devastating consequences, as victims died within hours or days of developing symptoms, their skin turning blue and their lungs filling up with fluid, causing them to suffocate.  In just one year, 1918, the average life expectancy in the United States plummeted by a dozen years, most likely due to the flu combined with the casualties in World War I.

In fact, the war helped play a role in the illness being dubbed the Spanish flu.  The name came from an impression that Spain was particularly hit hard by the pandemic, when in reality it was hitting many other countries just as hard.  The reason for this false impression was that reports of the disease were censored in Germany, Britain, France, and the United States in order to maintain the morale of their troops.  This was not the case in Spain, which was neutral during this time, and so they were much more open about reporting the deadly effects of the disease.  The most peculiar thing about the Spanish flu outbreak was in the demographics of the casualties.  Most flu outbreaks disproportionately kill the very young and the very old, with a higher survival rate for those in between.  With this epidemic, however, there was a higher than expected mortality rate for young adults.  The reason for this is still unknown, though some suspect that the conditions resulting from the war, including malnutrition, overcrowded medical camps and hospitals, and poor hygiene resulted in bacterial superinfection, which is what killed most of the victims.

Chapter 20 & Fascism

At the ideological level, fascism was extremely nationalistic, aiming to revitalize and "purify" the nation and to mobilize its people for some great task, whatever that was, though it usually involves violence against enemies.  In addition, its leaders celebrated action over reflection and placed their faith in a charismatic leader.  Fascists were ideologically opposed to individualism, liberalism, feminism, democracy, and communism, which they argued weakened the nation.  Fascism first took shape in Italy, perhaps due to it not having developed a modern democratic culture yet due to it being a relatively new state.  In a period of social upheaval, Benito Mussolini came to power on the promise of strong leadership in contrast to communism and democracy.  Mussolini saw the Italian state as an entity unto itself, with its citizens all having roles to play.  Perhaps most crucially, he viewed expansion through war and empire building as essential to its vitality.

Although fascists believed in a rigid social hierarchy, unlike communists, both ideologies prioritize loyalty to a collective society over individualism.  This may not be all that surprising, considering that Mussolini had a socialist background.  It almost seems like fascism was the right-wing answer to communism and the Russian Revolution  Considering the social, political, and economic situations in Italy, Germany, and Japan at the time, it is somewhat easy to see why influential people in those countries were attracted to fascism as a solution to the problems.

I agree that some fascist tendencies are on the rise today, especially the emphasis on nationalism.  While I don't necessarily think our current president is a fascist, I can definitely see the element of banding around a charismatic leader in that particular political party at the present.  However, not all of these tendencies necessarily indicate actual fascist ideology being on the rise, especially here in the United States, since we do have a strong democratic tradition.  As far as the element of racism, that in itself does not necessarily indicate that fascism is returning, as racists may not agree with the dictatorial elements.

Chapter 19 Responses

Chapter 19 Responses

What accounts for the massive peasant rebellions of 19th century China?

Unlike in Europe, no Industrial Revolution occurred in China to accompany the massive increase in population which the country had seen, nor did China's internal expansion to the west and south generate anything even remotely resembling the wealth and resources deriving from Europe's overseas empires.  As a result, there was growing pressure on the land, smaller farms for China's vast peasant population, and widespread unemployment, impoverishment, misery, and starvation.  In addition to this, China's centralized and bureaucratic state failed to enlarge itself to keep peace with the growing population, leaving it increasingly unable to perform its many functions in an effective manner, which left most of the power to local provincial officials.  However, these officials often were corrupt and brutal in their treatment of the peasants.  To top it all off, European military pressure and economic penetration was leading to substantial unemployment and raised peasant taxes.

What lay behind the decline of the Ottoman Empire in the 19th century?

The Ottoman Empire's territory had shrunk as a result of Russian, British, Austrian, and French aggression.  In particular, Napoleon's invasion of Egypt was a stunning blow, and when the French left, a newly independent Egypt started a modernizing and empire-building program on its own, on one occasion nearly overthrew the Ottoman Empire itself.  In addition, other parts of the empire, such as Greece, Serbia, Bulgaria, and Romania, achieved independence based on their own increasing nationalism and British and Russian support.  Like in China, the central Ottoman state had weakened, especially in its ability to raise revenue, and its military had weakened.  Economically, they lost their central role in Afro-Eurasian commerce thanks to the Europeans achieving direct oceanic access to Asia.

In what respects was Japan’s 19th century transformation revolutionary?

The means of promoting national unity marked a major break with the past, as it required an attack on the traditional power and privileges of the daimyo and the samurai, with the government now being centralized and featuring regional governors appointed by the national government.  In addition, the central state, not local authorities, now had the power to collect the nation's taxes and raise a national army.  As a result, the old social order was essentially abolished, and almost all Japanese were now legally equal as commoners and imperial subjects.  In addition, there was a widespread interest in the Western world, and to adopting Western ways, and later blending foreign and Japanese elements in distinct ways.

Chapter 18 Responses

Chapter 18 Responses

In what ways did the Industrial Revolution shape the character of 19th century European imperialism?

The Industrial Revolution led to new economic needs which Europeans found solutions to abroad.  For one, the enormous productivity of industrial technology created the need for extensive raw materials and agricultural products, the vast majority of which could be found on other continents.  Furthermore, Europe had to sell its own products that had come about as a result of the Industrial Revolution, as industrial capitalism periodically produced more manufactured goods than its own people could afford to buy.  In addition, European investors found it more profitable to invest their money abroad than doing so at home.

What contributed to changing European views of Asians and Africans in the 19th century?

With the advent of the industrial age, Europeans developed an arrogance that fused with or replaced their previous notions of religious superiority.  After all, they had unlocked the secrets of nature, created a society of unprecedented wealth, and had used both to produce military power that was unsurpassed.  Such things became the criteria that Europeans used to judge themselves and the rest of the world.  Because other cultures had not achieved such things, Europeans' views of them dropped sharply, coming to see them as "naturally" inferior using science to reinforce their racial preferences and prejudices.

In what different ways was colonial rule established in various parts of Africa and Asia?

Constructing the European colonial empires required military force or the threat.  In this area the Europeans had a massive advantage, not just in military organization but also in firepower.  The passage to colonial status, however, occurred in various ways.  In India and Indonesia, for example, colonization grew out of earlier interactions with European trading firms.  In contrast, for most Africa, Southeast Asia, and the Pacific islands, colonial rule came later and more abruptly and deliberately, with European nations negotiating amongst themselves which areas of land were theirs for the taking, mainly through military conquest in Africa.  Meanwhile, Britain's colonization of Australia and New Zealand came about rather similarly to their earlier colonization of North America.