Chapter 16: Part Two

The second part of this chapter focuses on some of the repercussions of the Atlantic revolutions which reverberated far beyond their places of origin and persisted long after those upheavals were concluded.  The most significant of these repercussions were three major movements that arose to challenge continuing patterns of oppression and exclusion.  These movements were abolitionism, which aimed to end slavery, nationalism, which aimed to foster unity and independence from foreign rule, and feminism, which challenged male dominance.  Each of these movements bore the marks of the Atlantic revolutions, and each came to have a global significance in the following centuries.

It's quite remarkable that the practice of slavery, widely practiced and little condemned since at least the beginning of human civilization, lost its legitimacy and was largely ended in little more than a century, from 1780 to 1890.  In the abolition movement, the ideas and practices of the Atlantic revolutions played a key role.  In way this movement towards abolishing slavery can be seen as a natural manifestation of Enlightenment ideals, with slavery coming to be seen as a violation of the natural rights of every person, in a very obvious way.  This thinking was bolstered by an increasingly vociferous religious opposition to the practice, particularly in Britain and the United States.  Furthermore, contrary to much earlier thinking, slavery began to be seen as not essential for economic progress, as both England and New England were among the most prosperous regions in the Western world at that time, and both were based on free labor.  As a result, moral virtue and economic success were joined.  These various strands of thinking came together in abolitionist movements.

Although the idea that humankind is divided into separate nations with distinct culture and territory deserving of independent political life is so widespread nowadays it may seem natural and timeless, it for most of human history states didn't usually coincide with the culture of a particular people, and most governments ruled over very diverse societies.  During the 19th century, however, nationalism proved to be an infinitely flexible and enormously powerful idea, not just in Europe, but elsewhere as well. For example, it inspired the establishment of Germany and Italy, as well as groups within vast empires to seek independence, but it also exacerbated existing rivalries among nations, which helped set the stage for World War I.

Part Five Intro and Chapter 16: Part 1

In the introduction to the fifth section of the book, the author begins by noting that between 1750 and 1914, sometimes called "the long nineteenth century," two new, related phenomena took center stage in the global history of humankind. The first new phenomena during this time was the creation of a new kind of society, today called "modern society," which arose out of the intersection of the Scientific, French, and Industrial Revolutions, all of which initially took shape in Western Europe.  Such societies have generated many of the transformative ideas which have guided human behavior over the past several centuries.  Such ideas include the ideas that movement towards social equality and the end of poverty was possible, that ordinary people could participate in political life, that nations could trump empires, that women could be equal to men, and that slavery was no longer necessary.

The second of these new phenomena was the growing ability of these modern societies to exercise enormous power and influence over the rest of humankind.  In many places, this took place within expanding European empires, while elsewhere it still took place, albeit within less formal means, such as economic penetration, military intervention, diplomatic pressure, and missionary activity.  When taken together these two phenomena thrust Western Europe into a new, far more prominent role in world history than it had ever held before, as it was here where modern living emerged most fully.  These societies, as well as their North American descendants, came to exercise a wholly unprecedented role in world affairs, collectively achieving something close to global dominance by the early twentieth century.

The Atlantic revolutions in North America, France, Haiti, and Latin America took place within a larger global framework of upheavals, but were distinctive in various ways.  For one, the costly wars that strained European imperial states were global rather than regional.  In addition, the Atlantic revolutionaries were closely connected to one another, in addition to sharing a set of common ideas, largely derived from the English Enlightenment.  However, such ideas generated endless controversy and debate that has continued to this day in some form or another.

Catholic Social Teachings

Note: The following blog post has nothing to do with the textbook, but rather a handout we received

The handout about the nine key themes of Catholic social teachings was quite interesting for me to read, especially because most of these themes seem like important values to have in our lives.  The nine main themes of Catholic social teachings are: the dignity of every person and human life; solidarity, common good, and participation; family life; subsidiarity and the proper role of government; property ownership in modern society, and the rights and responsibilities that come with it; the dignity of work, rights of workers, and support for labor unions; colonialism and economic development; peace and disarmament; and option for the poor and vulnerable.  While many of these themes seem very familiar, the Catholic Church emphasizes them in special ways.

For example, with the topic of the dignity of every life, the Catholic position on this is rooted in the belief that each human being is made in God's likeness.  Because of this belief, they are entitled to be treated with the upmost respect and dignity, as God intended us to be.  Catholics take this idea to its logical extreme, believing that there is nothing one can do to forfeit this lofty status.  While some may find this somewhat extreme and/or naive, such a view of human life can serve to guide us on our interactions with others.  Perhaps most crucially, the idea of human dignity contains a strong element of equality regardless of differences in ethnic, religious, or any other aspect of one's background.

Catholic social teaching also emphasizes the connections we have with our fellow human beings, encouraging us to be interdependent on one another for the good of the whole community, not just as individuals.  With the common good in mind, there is also a major emphasis on family life, since families are considered to be the most basic unit of society.  This is because a family is the most intimate sphere in which people cooperate, as well as the first place children learn about themselves.  For these reasons, healthy societies are dependent on healthy families, so families should get as much support as possible, including support from the government.  These themes were the ones that stuck out to me the most.

Sisters of Notre Dame

This post concerns a handout outside of the normal textbook, the link which can be found here: https://whspring2020.blogspot.com/2020/02/handout-for-tuesday-february-11.html

It was very interesting to me to read the story of how the Sisters of Notre Dame was established, especially as it was this group that established the college campus that I currently attend.  I was especially interested in the fact that the two co-founders of the order, Julie Billiart and Francoise Blin de Bourdon, came from drastically different backgrounds.  Julie came from a rather humble upbringing, the daughter of a shopkeeper.  While most members of France's Third Estate owned very little land, her father owned not only the shop, but some land as well, assets which gave him more means than an average member of his social class.  Because of this, he was able to afford Julie a basic religious education.  Through her education, she came to believe that the status quo was unfair, and sought about remedying it by bringing her own lessons to the children too poor to afford such an education, sparking a passion of educating poor children that would endure throughout her life.  After her education was complete, she began working in the fields to help support her family.  The combination of physical strain from the hard labor, and emotional stress brought on by the attempted murder of her father, led to the onset of multiple sclerosis, which left her bedridden at the age of 22.

Meanwhile, Francoise, the daughter of two wealthy landowners, had lived a life of privilege until the French Revolution and the Reign of Terror, during which she was spared from being executed only by the overthrow of the revolutionary government itself.  Even before this, however, she had long shown inclinations towards religion rather than what seemed to her a frivolous, useless life.  In 1794, one of Julie's followers took up residence at Francoise's family's house and rented a room for Julie.  The following winter of 1794-1795 marked the beginning of a friendship between the two women, with the thoughts that they shared during that time forming the core mission of the Sisters of Notre Dame.

Chapter 15: Cultural Transformations, 1450-1750

This chapter discusses the cultural changes that occurred across the world, both in a religious sense, and from a scientific sense, between 1450 and 1750.  The two major trends that developed in this time period were the spread of Christianity to Asians, Africans, and Native Americans, and the emergence of a scientific outlook that sharply challenged Western Christianity even as both acquired a global presence.

The most interesting thing about the expansion of Christianity into other continents is that fact that this occurred while Western Christianity was splintering as a result of the Protestant Reformation and the various new Protestant churches that formed as a result.  It makes sense that all this occurred at a time when literacy was increasing, so it was more likely that people would read the Bible for themselves and disagree with their priest's interpretation of a particular passage, and that people would express written concerns about the corruption within the Catholic Church at the time.  The response by the Catholic Church to reform itself from within also hints at a possible reason Christianity expanded during this time in the various missionary groups that were established following the Reformation.  Another interesting aspect of the expansion of Christianity is the ways in which it was blended with traditional religious traditions, particularly in the Americas.  However, Christianity's spread was quite limited in Asia and Africa, as Islam was also rapidly expanding during this time as well, with many similarities in terms of blending with traditional cultural beliefs elsewhere as well as movements during this time to return to traditional Muslim values, much like what was going on in the Christian world.  Because of this, it's no surprise to me that these two religions are among the most common faiths in the world to this day.

Partially in contrast to this religious expansion abroad, within Europe, others were beginning to develop an understanding of the world at least partially at odds with Christian teachings, in what became known as the Scientific Revolution.  Rather than accepting the accepted wisdom of the time, they sought to gain knowledge through their own inquiries and experiments.  One can hardly overestimate the long-term significance of the Scientific Revolution, as science has since become the chief marker of global modernity, even a universal worldview of sorts, open to all who could accept its premises and its techniques.