Chapter 19 Responses
What accounts for the massive peasant rebellions of 19th century China?
Unlike in Europe, no Industrial Revolution occurred in China to accompany the massive increase in population which the country had seen, nor did China's internal expansion to the west and south generate anything even remotely resembling the wealth and resources deriving from Europe's overseas empires. As a result, there was growing pressure on the land, smaller farms for China's vast peasant population, and widespread unemployment, impoverishment, misery, and starvation. In addition to this, China's centralized and bureaucratic state failed to enlarge itself to keep peace with the growing population, leaving it increasingly unable to perform its many functions in an effective manner, which left most of the power to local provincial officials. However, these officials often were corrupt and brutal in their treatment of the peasants. To top it all off, European military pressure and economic penetration was leading to substantial unemployment and raised peasant taxes.
What lay behind the decline of the Ottoman Empire in the 19th century?
The Ottoman Empire's territory had shrunk as a result of Russian, British, Austrian, and French aggression. In particular, Napoleon's invasion of Egypt was a stunning blow, and when the French left, a newly independent Egypt started a modernizing and empire-building program on its own, on one occasion nearly overthrew the Ottoman Empire itself. In addition, other parts of the empire, such as Greece, Serbia, Bulgaria, and Romania, achieved independence based on their own increasing nationalism and British and Russian support. Like in China, the central Ottoman state had weakened, especially in its ability to raise revenue, and its military had weakened. Economically, they lost their central role in Afro-Eurasian commerce thanks to the Europeans achieving direct oceanic access to Asia.
In what respects was Japan’s 19th century transformation revolutionary?
The means of promoting national unity marked a major break with the past, as it required an attack on the traditional power and privileges of the daimyo and the samurai, with the government now being centralized and featuring regional governors appointed by the national government. In addition, the central state, not local authorities, now had the power to collect the nation's taxes and raise a national army. As a result, the old social order was essentially abolished, and almost all Japanese were now legally equal as commoners and imperial subjects. In addition, there was a widespread interest in the Western world, and to adopting Western ways, and later blending foreign and Japanese elements in distinct ways.
Tuesday, March 31, 2020
Thursday, March 26, 2020
Chapter 18 Responses
Chapter 18 Responses
In what ways did the Industrial Revolution shape the character of 19th century European imperialism?
The Industrial Revolution led to new economic needs which Europeans found solutions to abroad. For one, the enormous productivity of industrial technology created the need for extensive raw materials and agricultural products, the vast majority of which could be found on other continents. Furthermore, Europe had to sell its own products that had come about as a result of the Industrial Revolution, as industrial capitalism periodically produced more manufactured goods than its own people could afford to buy. In addition, European investors found it more profitable to invest their money abroad than doing so at home.
What contributed to changing European views of Asians and Africans in the 19th century?
With the advent of the industrial age, Europeans developed an arrogance that fused with or replaced their previous notions of religious superiority. After all, they had unlocked the secrets of nature, created a society of unprecedented wealth, and had used both to produce military power that was unsurpassed. Such things became the criteria that Europeans used to judge themselves and the rest of the world. Because other cultures had not achieved such things, Europeans' views of them dropped sharply, coming to see them as "naturally" inferior using science to reinforce their racial preferences and prejudices.
In what different ways was colonial rule established in various parts of Africa and Asia?
Constructing the European colonial empires required military force or the threat. In this area the Europeans had a massive advantage, not just in military organization but also in firepower. The passage to colonial status, however, occurred in various ways. In India and Indonesia, for example, colonization grew out of earlier interactions with European trading firms. In contrast, for most Africa, Southeast Asia, and the Pacific islands, colonial rule came later and more abruptly and deliberately, with European nations negotiating amongst themselves which areas of land were theirs for the taking, mainly through military conquest in Africa. Meanwhile, Britain's colonization of Australia and New Zealand came about rather similarly to their earlier colonization of North America.
In what ways did the Industrial Revolution shape the character of 19th century European imperialism?
The Industrial Revolution led to new economic needs which Europeans found solutions to abroad. For one, the enormous productivity of industrial technology created the need for extensive raw materials and agricultural products, the vast majority of which could be found on other continents. Furthermore, Europe had to sell its own products that had come about as a result of the Industrial Revolution, as industrial capitalism periodically produced more manufactured goods than its own people could afford to buy. In addition, European investors found it more profitable to invest their money abroad than doing so at home.
What contributed to changing European views of Asians and Africans in the 19th century?
With the advent of the industrial age, Europeans developed an arrogance that fused with or replaced their previous notions of religious superiority. After all, they had unlocked the secrets of nature, created a society of unprecedented wealth, and had used both to produce military power that was unsurpassed. Such things became the criteria that Europeans used to judge themselves and the rest of the world. Because other cultures had not achieved such things, Europeans' views of them dropped sharply, coming to see them as "naturally" inferior using science to reinforce their racial preferences and prejudices.
In what different ways was colonial rule established in various parts of Africa and Asia?
Constructing the European colonial empires required military force or the threat. In this area the Europeans had a massive advantage, not just in military organization but also in firepower. The passage to colonial status, however, occurred in various ways. In India and Indonesia, for example, colonization grew out of earlier interactions with European trading firms. In contrast, for most Africa, Southeast Asia, and the Pacific islands, colonial rule came later and more abruptly and deliberately, with European nations negotiating amongst themselves which areas of land were theirs for the taking, mainly through military conquest in Africa. Meanwhile, Britain's colonization of Australia and New Zealand came about rather similarly to their earlier colonization of North America.
Monday, March 23, 2020
Chapter 17 Responses
Chapter 17 Responses:
In what ways did the roots of the Industrial Revolution lie within Europe? In what ways did that transformation have global roots?
Some of the reasons that it first occurred in Europe include certain patterns in Europe's internal development which favored innovation. This is because its many small, highly competitive states provided an insurance against economic and technological stagnation which the larger Chinese, Mughal, and Ottoman empires lacked. In addition, the relative newness of these European states caused their rulers to ally with the merchant class, which made technological innovation in the best interests of the governments. However, the transformation also had global roots in the sense that the Europeans had, by that time, established the largest and most varied network of exchange in history, thus allowing the technology to spread far more quickly than it could have before. In addition, other regions of the world, especially the Middle East, India, and China had also experienced times of great technological and scientific flourishing.
What was distinctive about Britain that may help explain its status as the breakthrough point of the Industrial Revolution?
Britain was the most commercialized of Europe's larger countries, its landlords having long ago enclosed much agricultural land, while a series of agricultural developments, such as crop rotation, selective breeding of animals, lighter plows, and higher-yielding seeds, increasing agricultural output, keeping food prices low, and freeing up labor from the countryside. In addition, employers were able to run their manufacturing enterprises as they saw fit, with a ready supply of industrial workers. Unlike most European aristocrats, those in Britain were greatly interested in business, some taking part in mining and manufacturing enterprises. Meanwhile, political life encouraged commercialization and economic innovation, thanks to Britain's policy of religious toleration, welcoming anyone with technical skills regardless of their faith, and to its checks on royal prerogative, allowing for a freer arena for private enterprise than elsewhere in Europe. Finally, science in Britain was much more concerned with observation, experiment, precise measurements, mechanical devices, and practical commercial applications.
Why did Marxist socialism not take root in the United States?
While the often poor working conditions generated much protest from workers in the United States, like in most of the world, and class conflict certainly was an issue in the U.S. during this time, unlike in many European countries, no major political party emerged during this time that represented the interests of the working class. In addition, socialist ideas, especially Marxist ideals, did not particularly appeal to American workers as much as they did to European workers. As a reference, the Socialist Party of America only garnered 6 percent of the vote in the 1912 Presidential election, at the height of its popularity. This stood in sharp contrast to countries such as Germany, where socialists held the most seats in the Parliament. One reason for this lack of popularity is that American union organizations, particularly the American Federation of Labor, were relatively conservative, focusing on skilled workers and excluding the more radical unskilled laborers, in addition to its refusal to align with any political party, thus limiting its influence in the American political sphere. In addition, the country's remarkable economic growth generated a higher average standard of living for American workers than those in Europe, with land being cheaper and home ownership being more affordable.
In what ways did the roots of the Industrial Revolution lie within Europe? In what ways did that transformation have global roots?
Some of the reasons that it first occurred in Europe include certain patterns in Europe's internal development which favored innovation. This is because its many small, highly competitive states provided an insurance against economic and technological stagnation which the larger Chinese, Mughal, and Ottoman empires lacked. In addition, the relative newness of these European states caused their rulers to ally with the merchant class, which made technological innovation in the best interests of the governments. However, the transformation also had global roots in the sense that the Europeans had, by that time, established the largest and most varied network of exchange in history, thus allowing the technology to spread far more quickly than it could have before. In addition, other regions of the world, especially the Middle East, India, and China had also experienced times of great technological and scientific flourishing.
What was distinctive about Britain that may help explain its status as the breakthrough point of the Industrial Revolution?
Britain was the most commercialized of Europe's larger countries, its landlords having long ago enclosed much agricultural land, while a series of agricultural developments, such as crop rotation, selective breeding of animals, lighter plows, and higher-yielding seeds, increasing agricultural output, keeping food prices low, and freeing up labor from the countryside. In addition, employers were able to run their manufacturing enterprises as they saw fit, with a ready supply of industrial workers. Unlike most European aristocrats, those in Britain were greatly interested in business, some taking part in mining and manufacturing enterprises. Meanwhile, political life encouraged commercialization and economic innovation, thanks to Britain's policy of religious toleration, welcoming anyone with technical skills regardless of their faith, and to its checks on royal prerogative, allowing for a freer arena for private enterprise than elsewhere in Europe. Finally, science in Britain was much more concerned with observation, experiment, precise measurements, mechanical devices, and practical commercial applications.
Why did Marxist socialism not take root in the United States?
While the often poor working conditions generated much protest from workers in the United States, like in most of the world, and class conflict certainly was an issue in the U.S. during this time, unlike in many European countries, no major political party emerged during this time that represented the interests of the working class. In addition, socialist ideas, especially Marxist ideals, did not particularly appeal to American workers as much as they did to European workers. As a reference, the Socialist Party of America only garnered 6 percent of the vote in the 1912 Presidential election, at the height of its popularity. This stood in sharp contrast to countries such as Germany, where socialists held the most seats in the Parliament. One reason for this lack of popularity is that American union organizations, particularly the American Federation of Labor, were relatively conservative, focusing on skilled workers and excluding the more radical unskilled laborers, in addition to its refusal to align with any political party, thus limiting its influence in the American political sphere. In addition, the country's remarkable economic growth generated a higher average standard of living for American workers than those in Europe, with land being cheaper and home ownership being more affordable.
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